Native American History

Newcastle, TX

During the Civil War, Confederate frontier troops garrisoned Camp Belknap to hold the exposed edge of Texas settlement. Local men joined a frontier regiment of cavalry and rangers that patrolled a chain of posts from the Red River to the Rio Grande, guarding against both raids and a feared Union thrust from Indian Territory. Short on food and ammunition, they concentrated near here in 1863 and met a large Comanche force at Elm Creek the next year.

Breckenridge, TX

Established near this site in 1862, Camp Breckenridge was one link in a Confederate frontier defense line that stretched from the Red River to the Rio Grande, manned by a company of the Texas Frontier Regiment. Riding posts a day apart, these poorly fed and under-equipped men patrolled a vast country to curb raids and round up draft evaders and renegades while the great battles raged far to the east. They won few glories, but some gave their lives protecting the settlers left behind.

Brownwood, TX

Camp Collier, about 13 miles southwest, was one link in a chain of Confederate frontier posts spaced a day's ride apart from the Red River to the Rio Grande. Manned by the Texas Frontier Regiment, its patrols checked Indian raids and rounded up draft evaders while the main armies fought far to the east. Texas—which voted better than three to one for secession and sent 90,000 troops to Confederate service—relied on posts like this, backed by rangers, militia, and "family forts," to guard a 2,000-mile frontier and coastline.

Coleman, TX

Camp Colorado, a former U.S. Army outpost surrendered at the start of the Civil War, became a link in the Confederate line of frontier defense running from the Red River to the Rio Grande. It served as headquarters for the First Texas Mounted Rifles in 1861 and the Frontier Regiment in 1863, manned by troops and Rangers who patrolled against Indian raids and rounded up deserters. Camp life was hard, marked by shortages of food, ammunition, and horses and the constant threat of attack.

Throckmorton, TX

Surrendered by federal forces at the outbreak of the Civil War, Camp Cooper became a Confederate outpost anchoring Texas's long frontier defense line from the Red River to the Rio Grande. Manned by Texas cavalry, mounted riflemen, and Rangers, its perpetually undersupplied troops patrolled against Comanche raids, Union incursion, and marauding deserters. Their constant scouting shielded supply trains and pioneer families clinging to the edge of settlement.

Santa Cruz County, AZ

This marker recalls Camp Crittenden, a U.S. Army post established in 1867 in the mountainous borderlands of what was then Arizona Territory. In the years after the Civil War, the Army planted a string of such camps across the Southwest to guard settlers, mail routes, and mines during the long Apache campaigns. Life at these remote posts was hard — disease, heat, and isolation took a heavier toll than combat — and Camp Crittenden was abandoned within a few years, leaving little but foundations and this commemoration.

Archer City, TX

During the Civil War the Confederacy strung a thin line of frontier posts from the Red River to the Rio Grande, and Camp Cureton anchored a stretch of it near where the Gainesville–Fort Belknap road crossed the West Fork of the Trinity. Manned by the Texas Frontier Regiment and named for veteran Indian-fighter Capt. Jack Cureton, its poorly supplied troopers patrolled against Comanche raids while guarding supply trains and watching for Union movement. Contemporaries judged them more effective at curbing raids than the U.S. Army had been.

Iraan, TX

Where the often flood-swollen Pecos River could be crossed, travelers found a lifeline for centuries. Spanish explorer Juan Domínguez de Mendoza camped and forded here in 1684, trader Henry Connelly used the same spot in 1840, and in 1868 the U.S. Army — seeking a safer route than Comanche-plagued Horsehead Crossing — built a floating pontoon bridge whose landings could shift with the river's width. To guard travelers the Army established nearby Camp Melvin, but by the 1920s better roads had left the crossing to history.

Carson City, NV

Established just north of here in October 1864, Camp Nye was the home base of Companies D and E of the 1st Nevada Volunteer Cavalry during the Civil War. Rather than fighting Confederates, these Union troopers were largely engaged in conflicts with American Indians across the region; Company D suffered Nevada's only two combat deaths of the war in a battle at Table Mountain in Elko County on May 20, 1865. The camp was deactivated that August, and no trace of its barracks and stables remains.

South Plains, TX

In 1841 Republic of Texas President Mirabeau B. Lamar dispatched merchants and a military escort toward Santa Fe, hoping to open a trade route and extend Texas's jurisdiction. Near here, exhausted and low on provisions and harried by Kiowa raiders, commander Hugh McLeod drew up the resolution — splitting his command — that gave this campsite its name; the expedition ended in captivity in Mexico City.

Chattanooga, TN

Near the mouth of Chattanooga Creek, where the Tennessee River loops around Moccasin Bend, this site served as a supply base for Tennessee troops during the Creek War of 1812–13. That conflict, fought largely against the Red Stick faction of the Creek Nation, unfolded alongside the War of 1812 and drew militia and volunteers deep into the Southern frontier. The river's dramatic bend here made it a natural staging ground as forces moved through the mountains.

Cooper, TX

The land around Camp Shed Cemetery, near the North Sulphur River, was home to the Caddo before Euro-American settlers began arriving in 1836, and many early migrants used the spot as a campground on their way west. Serving the communities of Enloe and Mount Joy, the ground saw its first recorded burial — Johnnie Kerbow — in 1880 and was formally deeded in 1886, when it was still called the "Campstead" graveyard after a camp shed that once stood there. Veterans of the Civil War and both world wars rest among its graves.

Marietta, OH

When the Ohio Company's pioneers founded Marietta in 1788, they raised Campus Martius, a stout fortified stockade to shelter the first settlers and the seat of government of the vast Northwest Territory. Through the perilous frontier years of 1788 to 1795, amid conflict with the region's Native nations, the fort stood as the anchor of American settlement north of the Ohio River.

Scranton, PA · est. 1947

Long before Scranton's anthracite furnaces lit the valley, the flat ground along the Lackawanna River held a Native village led by a chief remembered as Capoose. Its people were Munsee, a Lenape (Delaware) group who moved here from the upper Delaware valley in the years after 1743 — part of the slow, forced displacement of eastern Indigenous nations as colonial settlement pushed westward. The marker fixes their presence to a specific place that would later be swallowed by an industrial city.

Muncy Creek Township, PA · est. 1947

John Brady earned his reputation across the colonial wars and the Revolution as a hard frontier soldier, commanding a fortified post on the West Branch of the Susquehanna at present-day Muncy. On April 11, 1779, he was ambushed and killed by Native warriors near here, one of countless settlers and soldiers who fell in the running border warfare that consumed the region.

Pleasanton, TX

Peter Tumlinson was nineteen when his family reached Texas in 1821, and he followed his father—John Jackson Tumlinson, remembered as the first Texas Ranger killed in the line of duty—into that frontier service. Over some forty years he clashed with Indian raiders and the border figure Juan Cortina, fought in the Texas Revolution, and by family tradition witnessed the aftermath of San Jacinto. Granted land in Atascosa County, he served as county commissioner and founded the local Masonic lodge.

Liberty Township, PA · est. 1964

This memorial marks the graves of ten frontier militiamen of Captain Phillips' company, killed on July 16, 1780, during the brutal backcountry fighting of the Revolutionary War. Along Pennsylvania's western frontier, British-allied Native war parties raided isolated settlements, and local rangers like Phillips' men bore the danger of defending them. Their deaths were one small, bloody episode in a war whose frontier front is often overshadowed by the great eastern battles.

Nacogdoches, TX

In 1716 Captain Domingo Ramon led Spain's second attempt to plant a permanent settlement in East Texas, establishing a presidio and a cluster of missions near the Neches River in just weeks. The Hasinai Caddo tolerated and cooperated with the newcomers, who aimed to block illicit French trade pressing in from Louisiana. A minor French raid in 1719 scattered the fragile settlements, but the Ramon-Espinosa expedition had already helped open El Camino Real de los Tejas.

Corpus Christi, TX

Soldier, colonist, and explorer, Captain Enrique Villarreal once held title to most of what is now Nueces County through the vast Rincon del Oso land grant, awarded by Mexico in 1831 though he had ranched it since 1810. Raiding forced him off the land until peace came in 1824, and as a Mexican officer he fought through the Mexican War for Independence, the Texas Revolution, and the U.S.-Mexican War. When Henry Lawrence Kinney founded his trading post on Villarreal's grant, he set in motion the sales that would make him the land's eventual owner—and give rise to the city of Corpus Christi.

Decatur, TX

George W. Stevens came to Wise County in 1855 and became a leader in defending the exposed Texas frontier, serving in a frontier cavalry company and as county sheriff during the turbulent 1860s. In 1874 he was named captain of Company B of the Texas Rangers' Frontier Battalion, leading some seventy-five men — mostly Wise County neighbors — in the last campaigns against Comanche and Kiowa raiders, and he was severely wounded in a fight at Buffalo Springs. He later helped chase the notorious Sam Bass gang before his death in 1893.

Flat Rock, TX

Alabama-born George Stevens came to Wise County in 1855 and made his name as a defender of frontier settlers, active in resisting Indian raids and serving as a guiding officer in local home-guard units. He also wore the badge of county sheriff across the 1860s and 1870s, keeping order in a raw and often violent region.

Walnut Springs, TX

J.J. Cureton settled on the Palo Pinto frontier in 1854 and became a noted Indian fighter, leading neighbors in defense of their homes against raids. In 1860 he took part in the recovery of Cynthia Ann Parker, seized by Comanches twenty-four years earlier, and during the Civil War served as a captain in frontier troops guarding northwest Texas against both Indian attack and northern incursion. He later served as sheriff of Bosque County, and the C.S.A. outpost Camp Cureton bore his name.

Bandera, TX

On December 29, 1876, Bandera County Deputy Sheriff Capt. Jack Phillips rode alone toward Sabinal Canyon and was ambushed by Indians at Seco Canyon Pass. After his horse was shot out from under him, he ran half a mile on foot before being killed; a passing couple bound for their own wedding found his body. Tragically, Texas Rangers had trailed the same raiders for miles but turned back exhausted just before the attack.

Kauaʻi County, HI

This statue on Kauaʻi honors the British navigator James Cook (1728–1779), whose Pacific voyages brought the first sustained European contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. A cast of a monument in Cook's home port of Whitby, England, the figure was sculpted by Sir John Tweed. Cook's charts opened the islands to a wider world, with consequences both momentous and, for Native Hawaiians, profoundly disruptive.

Hallettsville, TX

Leiper Willoughby came to Texas in 1831 and fought in Captain William H. Patton's company at the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, the engagement that won Texas its independence. He remained in arms for the young Republic, serving in the 1842 Vasquez Campaign against Mexican incursion and in frontier fighting that same year. He died in 1874, and the state honored him with a Star and Wreath marker in 1956.

Odessa, TX

As the 1849 Gold Rush drew thousands westward, the U.S. Army sent Captain Randolph B. Marcy to escort the 'Forty-Niners' toward Santa Fe, opening a wagon road from Fort Smith with the help of the Delaware scout Black Beaver and engineer James H. Simpson. After delivering his party, Marcy set out to survey a return route from West Texas, guided by a noted Comanche named Manuel across the Pecos, the Monahans sandhills, and an old Comanche trail near present-day Odessa. The resulting Fort Smith–Santa Fe road gave emigrants a shorter southern path across the continent.

Lower Windsor Township, PA · est. 1924

When Thomas Cresap settled here in 1730, the border between Pennsylvania and Maryland was undrawn and hotly contested, and he claimed these lands for Lord Baltimore against the heirs of William Penn. His stubborn defense made him a flashpoint of "Cresap's War," the frontier feud over the disputed boundary. In 1736 Pennsylvania forces burned him out of his fortified log house and hauled him off a prisoner to Philadelphia.

Jim Thorpe, PA · est. 1982

Carbon County, formed in 1843 from Northampton and Monroe, was named outright for the element at the heart of its wealth: the rich anthracite coal beds that fueled America's industrial rise. Its seat began life as Mauch Chunk, a booming coal-shipping town on the Lehigh, and in 1954 took the name Jim Thorpe to honor the great Native American athlete, whose remains were brought there. The renaming stitched a legendary Olympian's memory to a hard-coal town.

Carlisle, PA · est. 1982

Standing since 1757, Carlisle Barracks is the oldest active Army post in the United States, born on the colonial frontier during the era of the French and Indian War. Its ground records nearly every chapter of American conflict: a stone powder magazine raised by Hessian prisoners during the Revolution still survives, and Confederate troops put the post to the torch on July 1, 1863, as the Gettysburg campaign swept north. From 1879 to 1918 it housed the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, a nationally significant and deeply controversial experiment in forced assimilation, before becoming home to the Army War College in 1951.

North Middleton Township, PA · est. 2003

Opened in 1879, the Carlisle Indian Industrial School became the model for a nationwide system of federal boarding schools designed to strip Native children of their languages and cultures and remake them in the image of white America. More than 10,000 indigenous children from across the country passed through its doors before it closed in 1918. Its legacy is painfully mixed — opportunity for some, lasting trauma and fractured identity for many — and the cemetery here holds 186 students who never made it home.

Athens, PA · est. 1948

At the narrow neck of land where the Chemung and Susquehanna rivers nearly meet, Native travelers once lifted their canoes from the water and carried them a hundred and ninety yards overland. This short portage linked two great river highways of the Northeast, a well-worn shortcut used for generations before European settlement reached the valley. Such carrying paths were the hinges of Indigenous travel and trade across the region.

Ector, TX

Local tradition holds that this Fannin County cemetery took its name from John Carson, who once owned the neighboring land, and that its earliest graves date to an 1842 Indian raid on the nearby home of Dr. W. M. Hunter. The three victims were Minerva Hunter, her young daughter Elizabeth, and an enslaved or hired African American woman whose name has been lost to record. Cemetery trustees secured title by 1878 and later added land, and Minerva Hunter's grave was finally marked in 1942, a century after her death.

Brackettville, TX

After the Army disbanded Fort Clark's Seminole-Negro Indian Scout Detachment in 1914, the Seminole families relocated to Brackettville, where in 1919 the school district bought land for a "colored school." A two-story 1870 limestone homestead became the George Washington Carver School, once the only accredited Black school between San Antonio and El Paso. The grounds later passed to the Seminole community and remain a cultural center for Juneteenth and Seminole Day gatherings.

Socorro, TX

Tradition holds that this thick-walled adobe near Socorro was built before 1800, in the era of New Spain's far northern frontier. By the 1840s it belonged to José Ortiz, a 'Comanchero' whose ox-cart trains hauled salt from the Guadalupe Mountains and carried goods to Santa Fe and out onto the Llano Estacado, where he traded with the Comanches for buffalo hides and meat. With its cottonwood and willow vigas and earthen roof, the house is a fine surviving example of Spanish colonial frontier building.

Boerne, TX

Likely carved during the Pleistocene by the underground Cibolo River, Cascade Cavern near Boerne holds a rich mix of geology, wildlife, and human history. Archeological evidence points to two Indian sites, and soot on a natural chimney suggests Native peoples once sheltered and built fires within. Commercially developed from the 1930s and renamed in a 1932 ceremony led by future governor James V. Allred, the cave long drew visitors to its seven waterfalls.

Crane, TX

Castle Gap, a natural notch in the Castle Mountains of West Texas, has funneled travelers for millennia — from prehistoric Native peoples who left flint points, to Spanish explorers, California-bound gold-seekers, the Butterfield Overland Mail stages of 1858–1861, and the great Goodnight-Loving cattle drives after 1866. A spring within the gap made it a vital watering stop on the road to Horsehead Crossing on the Pecos.

McCamey, TX

A mile-long gap between Castle and King mountains, Castle Gap funneled nearly the whole pageant of West Texas travel through one narrow pass. Comanche war parties, the Spanish explorer Rabago y Teran, gold-rush '49ers, Butterfield Overland Mail coaches from 1858 to 1861, and the Goodnight-Loving cattle trail after 1866 all passed this way, and legend places buried Maximilian treasure nearby. Today its old coach ruts fade quietly into the desert.

Leakey, TX

On April 19, 1881, a Lipan Apache band raided the Frio Canyon home of 'Kate' McLauren while she was there with her three small children and a neighbor boy. Shot during the attack, she still managed to send her six-year-old daughter for help before dying that night after her husband's return. When a cemetery was established at Leakey, she and the boy killed in the raid were among its first burials, in what is remembered as the last Indian raid in the canyon.

Mendocino County, CA

Across California, Catholic missionaries built modest chapels to bring their faith to Indigenous communities, a history that ran from the grand Spanish missions of the coast to smaller, humbler outposts inland. This marker recalls one such place in the Mendocino County country, a small wooden church that served as a Catholic mission to the Native people of the region. Its plain construction reflects the frontier reality of a rural mission, far from the whitewashed adobe of the famous coastal chain.

Loop, TX

Known also as Laguna Sabinas, this largest of the plains' alkali lakes was long an Indian camp and burial ground, and by tradition the birthplace of the great Comanche leader Quanah Parker. In October 1875 it was the scene of a skirmish between Native fighters and U.S. Cavalry under Lieutenant John L. Bullis, one of the closing clashes as the Comanche were driven from the Llano Estacado. Water, refuge, and memory converged at this remote West Texas lake.

San Saba, TX

This cedar log structure served more than a century ago as stables on the Charles Harris ranch along Cherokee Creek south of San Saba, built sturdy enough to keep horses from being stolen in the raiding days of the Texas frontier. Preserved as the Cedar Log Cabin Museum, it was given in memory of Eula Gray Kuykendall by her husband and children. The building stands as a rare survivor of early ranch life in the county.

Santa Fe County, NM

At an elevation of 5,688 feet, Cerrillos sits in a mineral-rich district that Native peoples mined for turquoise long before the Spanish arrived, trading the prized blue-green stone across the Southwest and deep into Mexico. The early settlement of Los Cerrillos later sheltered Spanish refugees during the turbulent colonial era. The marker layers together thousands of years of mining, trade, and frontier settlement in one small New Mexico town.

Uvalde, TX

On May 29, 1861, two of southwest Texas's most noted frontiersmen were ambushed here by a band of some twenty Native warriors. Henry Robinson, a tall, red-bearded man so well known that his likeness had been painted on a rock near the Llano River, was traveling to Camp Wood with his companion Henry Adams when the attack came. Both men were killed and scalped, after which the raiders struck Robinson's home—only to be driven off by his family.

City of Plattsburgh, NY

Samuel de Champlain was the French navigator and cartographer who charted much of northeastern North America in the early 1600s, founding Quebec in 1608 and, in 1609, becoming the first European to document the long lake that still bears his name. Traveling with Algonquin and Huron allies, he pushed south into the waterway that would become a strategic highway between the St. Lawrence and the Hudson. This monument on the Plattsburgh shore marks the lake he opened to European maps and the New France he worked to establish.

North Middleton Township, PA · est. 2003

Charles "Chief" Bender was one of the great pitchers of baseball's early modern era, anchoring the Philadelphia Athletics from 1903 to 1914 and helping them capture five pennants and three world championships. The son of a mother who was half Ojibwe, he attended the Carlisle Indian Industrial School on this very site from 1898 to 1901 before rising to become one of the sport's first World Series stars. His 212 career wins carried him into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1954.

Oran, TX

In 1857 a twenty-one-year-old Charles Goodnight set up his first ranch at Black Springs on the very edge of the Comanche frontier, where cattle and danger ran together. He scouted for the Texas Rangers during the Civil War, blazed the Goodnight-Loving Trail in 1866, and famously hauled his dying partner Oliver Loving's body home for burial. Later he founded the panhandle's first ranch, the JA, and even bred buffalo with cattle—the "cattalo."

New Orleans, LA

In 1719, in the earliest years of French Louisiana, the colony's attorney general Pierre Chartier de Baulne secured the first land grant along Chapitoulas Road, at the former village of the Colapissa people. His family were among the first colonists to settle the area that would grow into greater New Orleans. The concession marks where European agriculture began overwriting an Indigenous landscape.

Tarentum, PA · est. 2015

Long before Tarentum, this bend of the Allegheny held a Shawnee village where several well-worn Indian paths came together. In the 1730s the trader Pierre Chartier — son of the French explorer Martin Chartier — kept a post here for nearly a decade. Nearly a century later, in 1829, Henry Brackenridge laid out a town along the new Pennsylvania Canal and gave it the classical name Tarentum.

San Marcos, TX

A lone knoll above the Blanco River, long known as Indian Hill, gave native people a vantage to spot bison herds and danger for thousands of years before settlers arrived. In 1848 Henry and Martha Cheatham bought land that included the hill, and after their son's death in 1871 they began burying family atop it; in 1897 the Prussian-born farmer Ernest Hohenberg bought part of the tract and started his own family plot alongside. The two burial grounds — one settler, one immigrant — now share the summit as the Cheatham-Hohenberg Cemetery.

Edom, TX

On this ground on July 16, 1839, Cherokee leader Chief Bowles was killed leading some 800 Native fighters of allied tribes against roughly 500 Texan troops. The clash marked the climax of the young Republic of Texas's campaign to expel the Cherokees and their allies from East Texas, the last major engagement between Cherokees and Texans. Bowles, an aged chief who had sought a permanent land guarantee, died on the field.

Rusk, TX

When Spanish and French explorers reached this region in the seventeenth century, they found Tejas and Hasinai peoples living here, and the Spanish planted missions among them. The Cherokee, driven from the United States, migrated to the area around 1822 and were present during early Anglo colonization before President Mirabeau B. Lamar's administration expelled them in 1839. Formally created from Nacogdoches County in 1846, Cherokee County filled quickly with farms and towns and has since produced two Texas governors, a Wyoming governor, and a Texas House speaker.

Chandler, TX

Pushed out of their eastern homelands by white settlement, Cherokee people migrated into East Texas and were established in the region by 1820, seeking in vain to secure legal title to their land from Mexico. The uneasy coexistence that followed collapsed in 1839 when Republic of Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar ordered the tribe expelled. In a two-day battle northwest of here on July 15–16, two Texans and eighteen Cherokees fell, including the aged Chief Bowles, and the survivors were driven north into present-day Oklahoma.

Gilmer, TX

Around 1821, Cherokee people living near Nacogdoches blazed a trail north toward their kin in Arkansas, guided by a scout who set his course by dragging buffalo skins behind his horse while others marked the trees and planted Cherokee roses still seen along the route. Sam Houston, David Crockett, and thousands of settlers followed this road into Texas. The Cherokee were expelled from Texas in 1839 after Houston left the presidency, their chief killed in a two-day battle on the Neches River.

Leesburg, TX

The Cherokee Trace was an Indian trading route laid out by Cherokees leading north toward Arkansas and Oklahoma. According to tradition, a tribesman with an unerring sense of direction dragged buffalo hides behind his horse to flatten the tall grass, while others followed to clear logs and brush, mark river fords, and locate springs and campsites; the roses and honeysuckle the Cherokees planted are said to still trace its path. After Native peoples were forced out, Anglo settlers used the same road to enter Texas, and Camp County's first residents lived along it.

Longview, TX

In 1821 Cherokee people blazed this trace from the Nacogdoches area to their reservation on Arkansas's White River, slashing trees, clearing a path, planting Cherokee roses, and marking springs as camps. The trail became a thoroughfare for Sam Houston, David Crockett, other soldiers of the Texas Revolution, and thousands of immigrants. After Texas forces drove the Cherokees from the state in 1839, the very people who made the road departed over it into exile.

Waynesville, MO

During the forced Cherokee removal of 1838–1839 remembered as the Trail of Tears, several of the detachments driven west toward Indian Territory passed through the Missouri Ozarks along the Old Wire (Springfield) Road. This spot at Roubidoux Spring in Waynesville was one of the campsites where an emigrating party halted to rest and draw water, its reliable flow a welcome pause on a brutal winter march. The spring still runs today, a quiet witness to thousands of Cherokee men, women, and children who camped nearby under military escort.

Dallas, TX

In 1819 some ninety Cherokees led by Chief Bowles migrated from Arkansas Territory into this part of North Texas, only to be pushed out two years later by other Native groups who resented the newcomers. Remnants of the band later signed an 1843 treaty pledging to respect the Republic of Texas and its settlers.

Pontotoc County, MS

In the 1820s, the Chickasaw village known here as "Pontatock," set along the ancient Natchez Trace, held the council house that served as the seat of the Chickasaw Nation. From this ground the nation deliberated its affairs in the decade before the pressures of removal drove the Chickasaw west of the Mississippi. The site marks a center of self-government for one of the great nations of the Southeast on the eve of a wrenching displacement.

Alto vicinity, TX

In 1836 Sam Houston negotiated a treaty recognizing the Cherokees' right to the East Texas lands they occupied, where their leading figure was Duwali — known also as Bowl or Chief Bowles. But after the Texas Revolution the Senate of the new Republic voided the treaty, and in 1839 President Mirabeau B. Lamar ordered the Cherokee expelled. Learning of the order near this site, Bowles rallied his people to resist and was killed at the Battle of the Neches on July 16, 1839.

Burlington, VT · est. 1984

Abenaki tradition holds that Odzihozo, creator of the Champlain Valley, turned himself into a rock island so he could gaze upon it forever. Dedicated in 1984, this statue by sculptor Peter Wolf Toth honors Chief Grey Lock, an 18th-century Abenaki leader, and all the Indigenous peoples of Vermont. It is one of fifty such works Toth placed across the country to deepen the nation's appreciation for Native Americans.