Historic Markers in Texas

Brenham, TX

During the Civil War, Texas county commissioners courts—a chief justice and four commissioners—became engines of the Confederate war effort, arming and clothing troops, aiding war factories, and distributing scarce medicine, salt, and cloth to soldiers' families. They organized patrols and home guards and raised money through bonds, scrip, and a special war tax. Prosperous Washington County financed hospitals, contracted army uniforms, printed its own scrip, and ran a camp of instruction and a soldiers' home in Brenham.

Alpine, TX

Lawrence Sullivan "Sul" Ross rose from private in 1861 to brigadier general by 1863, leading a largely Texan cavalry brigade through hard fighting in Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. Tradition holds he had five horses shot from under him across 135 engagements. The State of Texas erected this memorial in 1963, and a college bears his name.

Linden, TX

Dr. M. D. K. Taylor, an Alabama physician who came to Texas in 1847, represented Cass County in the legislature for 24 years and was reckoned the ablest parliamentarian of his day. As a speaker of the Texas House during the Civil War, he helped pass laws to raise, arm, and supply some 90,000 Texas soldiers and to defend the state's long frontier and coast. With the Union blockade choking imports, the legislature he led established plants to make guns, powder, cloth, and salt, taxed property, and levied tithes of produce to meet the crisis.

Austin, TX

Opened in 1908, this Austin home cared for the aging wives and widows of Confederate veterans, women left without support in their final years. Organized and funded largely by the United Daughters of the Confederacy before being turned over to the state, it grew to include dormitories, a parlor, and a hospital. Over more than half a century it sheltered thousands of women until it closed in 1963.

Stamford, TX

Founded in 1930 alongside the Texas Cowboy Reunion, this association gathered aging cowhands—335 of them who had worked the range before 1895—to preserve the customs of the people who raised longhorns and endured droughts and freezes on the open range. Its early ranks even included Will Rogers, publisher Amon Carter, and bandleader Paul Whiteman. A donated bull funded a bunkhouse and roundup hall, and the annual reunion still features chuckwagon meals, square dancing, and what's billed as the world's largest amateur cowboy show.

Austin, TX

The roots of this professional body reach back to 1869, when dentists meeting in Houston drafted a constitution and elected Dr. Menard Michau their first president, winning a state charter in 1871. After struggles in the 1870s the group reorganized as the Texas State Dental Association in 1880, then merged the two efforts under the original charter in 1881. Its 'Texas Dental Journal,' begun in 1883, is the oldest continuously published dental periodical in the Western Hemisphere.

Plano, TX

In the early 20th century, sleek electric interurban cars linked North Texas towns before the automobile took over, and this 1908 depot was a stop on that network. Built by the Texas Traction Company — reorganized as the Texas Electric Railway after a 1917 merger — it combined a wood-frame passenger depot with a brick freight and transformer wing. Passengers and shippers used it until 1948, when the interurban lines faded and highways won out.

Palestine, TX

Growing out of the postwar county gatherings that showcased new farming equipment, the Anderson County Fair opened in October 1898 and earned the nickname "Texas Fruit Palace" for the region's many orchards. It roamed among Front Street, a horse track, and the courthouse square before settling on leased grounds in 1947, always featuring farm products, produce, and livestock. Its stages hosted the Bill Hames carnival and country stars like Roy Acuff and Hank Williams; though the fair has closed, its Youth Livestock Show carries on.

Fort Worth, TX

Formed in 1929, the Texas Federation of Garden Clubs gave women a statewide platform for far more than gardening — championing conservation, wildflower protection, highway beautification, and garden therapy. A founding member of National Garden Clubs, Inc., the organization built its Fort Worth headquarters in 1959, a low-slung ranch-style building of sandstone and redwood designed by Robert P. Woltz, Jr.

New Braunfels, TX

When Texas voted on secession in 1861, ten heavily German counties opposed leaving the Union, an unusual dissent in a Confederate state—though Comal County broke the other way. Many German Texans had only recently taken naturalization oaths and found the doctrine of states' rights hard to parse; some avoided service out of concern for their families while others slipped away to join U.S. units. Still, the majority backed the Confederacy, and three companies from Comal County earned praise for their discipline and morale.

Wichita Falls, TX

James V. Allred climbed from the Wichita Falls bar to the Texas governorship during the depths of the Great Depression, serving from 1935 to 1939. A reform-minded Democrat allied with the New Deal spirit of the era, he pushed changes to state government before later taking a seat on the federal bench. The marker roots his rise at this very courthouse, where he practiced and first won public office as district attorney.

Wharton, TX

The Texas Gulf Sulphur Company, renamed from the Gulf Sulphur Company in 1918, first produced sulphur in 1919 and soon expanded into Wharton County's Boling Dome. In 1928 it opened a new company town, Newgulf, complete with hundreds of homes, a hospital, school, library, movie house, golf course, and four churches. Over the decades the Boling Dome yielded more than 80 million long tons of sulphur—the largest such mine in the world—until production ceased in 1993 and the town was dismantled.

Austin, TX

Created on April 4, 1917, as automobiles were revolutionizing travel and farmers demanded all-weather roads to market, the Texas Highway Department set out to organize a statewide system backed by federal matching funds. A one-cent gas tax after 1923 and New Deal relief funds during the Depression fueled massive road building, and in 1933 the agency completed this headquarters building. From here DeWitt C. Greer led the department for decades; the building was later named in his honor.

Austin, TX

During the Civil War, Texas sent some 90,000 men to fight for the Confederacy, yet still had to defend 2,000 miles of coastline and frontier against Federal forces, Native raids, and outlaws. That burden fell largely on the state Adjutant General, who filled troop requisitions while organizing the Frontier Regiment's chain of forts from the Rio Grande to the Red River—and doubling as inspector, quartermaster, ordnance, and commissary officer. Five men held the demanding post between 1861 and 1865.

Austin, TX

When Texas joined the Confederacy in 1861, a minority of Texans—many of them immigrants, Northerners, or Unionists—refused to follow. Some crossed the Rio Grande to organize the 1st Texas Cavalry (U.S.) under Col. E. J. Davis, while others formed the nucleus of a second Union regiment in New Orleans; the two merged in 1864. Captured Confederates could win release as "galvanized Yankees," sent to fight on the frontier rather than against former comrades, though some Union Texans did face old neighbors in the Red River campaigns.

Fort Worth, TX

From the end of the Civil War until World War I, Confederate veterans dominated economic and civic life across Texas, gathering yearly in United Confederate Veterans camps in nearly every community. Unlike Union soldiers, who drew federal pensions, ex-Confederates relied on state aid—land grants in the early 1880s, then pensions approved in 1899—and on homes for veterans, wives, and widows built in Austin. By 1965 Texas had spent more than $71 million on these benefits.

Lewisville, TX

Over Labor Day weekend in 1969, just two weeks after Woodstock, the Texas International Pop Festival drew as many as 150,000 people to a motor speedway near Lewisville, a town of only about 9,000. Twenty-five acts spanning soul, blues, and rock played over three days—Janis Joplin, Sly & the Family Stone, and a then-obscure British band called Led Zeppelin among them. Despite fears of chaos and skinny-dipping in the lake, the festival passed without reported violence, leaving many locals changed by their first brush with counterculture.

Austin, TX

Johann Jacob Groos left Germany for Texas in 1845, part of the great wave of German immigration that reshaped the Hill Country, and put his surveyor's training to work opening the New Braunfels area to settlement. He held Comal County office for over a decade, served in the Confederate militia during the Civil War, and in 1874 was elected Commissioner of the General Land Office — the state agency at the very center of Texas's land-grant story.

Kerrville, TX

On land once tied to Kerrville's founder, this Hill Country site had sheltered the sick since the 1920s, from an American Legion sanitorium to a veterans' hospital. When polio swept the nation in the late 1940s, Kerrville Lion Jack Roe—a social worker who had watched disabled children turned away from ordinary camps—rallied Lions clubs across Texas to build a camp of their own. With help from Sen. Lyndon B. Johnson, they bought 504 acres here in 1950, and the Texas Lions Camp opened its gates to its first 40 campers in 1953.

Cooper, TX

This marker recalls the town livery stable, a once-essential institution that rented horses, buggies, hearses, and wagons and boarded the teams of doctors, lawyers, salesmen, and travelers. More than a garage for the horse age, the stable served as a men's club where townsfolk traded news, and it employed boys after school to groom animals and polish carriages. In Cooper, the Blackwell and Nidever stables filled this role — the latter even keeping the city fire-engine team ready out front — until the automobile made the livery vanish around 1915.

Fort Worth, TX

These relocated log cabins recall the hard, resourceful life of North Texas pioneers in the Cross Timbers, where families felled oak, cedar, and heart pine and joined the corners with quarter-notch and dovetail joints because sawn lumber lay far beyond reach. Amid threats, poor crops, and primitive conditions, the cabin was both shelter and a welcome sight to travelers. Among them is the Isaac Parker cabin, the last home of Cynthia Ann Parker after she was taken from her Comanche family in 1860, gathered here as a Log Cabin Village to keep the frontier spirit alive.

Trinity, TX

East Texas rode a river of pine, and few mills ran it better than the Texas Long Leaf Lumber Company, which bought the Thompson Brothers' Trinity mill in 1922. Under Paul Sanderson's 22-year leadership the operation became a national leader in yellow pine and hardwoods, employing as many as 450 people and pioneering selective cutting, reforestation, and fire protection. During World War II the mill cut up to 140,000 board feet a day—lumber that reached Europe and Africa and earned the coveted Army-Navy "E" Award in 1944. The mill's 1955 closure devastated Trinity's economy and closed a defining chapter in the town's life.

Seguin, TX

Texas Lutheran College traces its roots to an 1890 decision by the first German Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Texas to open a school in Brenham, which welcomed students in 1891 with a European-style curriculum taught in German and English. Over the following decades it shifted toward ministerial training, moved to Seguin in 1912 after townspeople offered land, and grew through mergers with Swedish, then Norwegian, Lutheran colleges. It took its present name in 1932 and became a four-year senior college in 1948.

Terrell, TX

The railroad remade this corner of North Texas. A line laid in 1882 was bought a decade later by the famously frugal financier Hetty Green and reorganized as the Texas Midland Railroad under her son Edward. For generations the line carried the freight and passengers that built up towns like Terrell, where its maintenance shops were based, until it ceased operating in 1958.

Austin, TX

The Civil War devastated Texas journalism: the state's newspapers shrank from 82 titles with a combined circulation of 100,000 to fewer than 20 by early 1862 as editors enlisted or ran out of ink and paper. Surviving papers printed on wallpaper, tissue, straw paper, and brown wrapping, often shrinking to half a page, while editors scavenged months-old letters and clippings for news. The 'State Gazette' even kept a pony express rider at the Brenham railhead to rush in Houston papers just 18 hours old.

Denton, TX

On September 16, 1890, seventy students — including 28 Creeks from Indian Territory — gathered on the second floor of a Denton hardware store for the first session of Texas Normal College and Teacher Training Institute. Led by Ohio- and Indiana-trained educator Joshua C. Chilton with a faculty of five, the school moved the next year to the site of what became North Texas State University.

Panhandle, TX

John F. Weatherly and his family were among the first landowners on the wide-open Texas Panhandle, starting a ranch in 1898 and running the country store, post office, and telephone exchange for their neighbors. The 1924 discovery of oil on their land helped spark the founding of Borger, and the family gave freely—donating ground for churches, schools, and a park. His wife, Maggie Marie Deahl Weatherly, later built Weatherly Hall at Texas Christian University.

Panhandle, TX

The three Simms brothers came to Texas in 1886 and reached this Panhandle county in the early 1900s, arriving after the hunters and soldiers who had cleared the range of buffalo and driven off the Comanche. Unlike the open-range cattlemen before them, these settlers bought their land outright and worked to pay it off, selling buffalo bones and collecting wolf bounties to survive the droughts. In the brutal winter of 1905–1906 they plowed a four-furrow railway firebreak on a hundred-mile trek, singing gospel hymns by the campfire each night.

Sugar Land, TX

The land here began as a 5,235-acre sugar plantation worked by leased convict labor starting in 1878, when Texas ran a self-sustaining prison system funded by renting prisoners to private operators like Cunningham and Ellis. Despite brutal camp conditions, the leasing program persisted into the 1910s; the state bought the plantation in 1908 and renamed it Imperial State Prison Farm. Reforms of the late 1920s ended leasing and improved conditions, and in 1932 the Art Moderne main building rose here—poured reinforced concrete with a pyramidal-roofed tower—as the first modernized structure in the Texas prison system.

Weatherford, TX

The Knights of Pythias of Texas long dreamed of a home for the widows and orphans of their members, and in 1907 laid the cornerstone of this massive, Moorish-influenced brick building near Weatherford. Opened in 1909 as the Widows and Orphans Home and Industrial School, it drew its first residents from across the state and long served as a Parker County landmark.

Tomball, TX

By 1861, Harris County sat at the hub of nearly 500 miles of Texas railroads, with lines fanning out toward Orange, Galveston, the Brazos, and beyond, stitched together with stagecoach links to reach Austin. During the Civil War, Confederate troops guarded and maintained some lines while others were torn up to deny them to Union invasion. Overtaxed and unable to replace worn track and rolling stock, seven roads were ruined, and by 1865 only two still ran trains.

Floresville, TX

Will L. Wright rose from a Wilson County deputy sheriff in the 1890s to one of the most respected lawmen on the Texas border, serving as county sheriff and then commanding Company D of the Texas Rangers from 1918 to 1939. Remembered as fearless yet diplomatic, he was credited with preventing bloodshed through honesty rather than force during turbulent years along the Rio Grande. Two of his seven children followed him into law enforcement.

Crosbyton, TX

In 1879 the Texas Rangers established Camp Roberts near here, the first Ranger station in the Panhandle, home to Company C of the newly formed Frontier Battalion. Commanded by the hard-riding Capt. G. W. Arrington, the small force—never more than 28 men—patrolled a vast, arid territory against raiders, outlaws, and rowdy cowboys. Each Ranger supplied his own horse, guns, and gear, living a spare, mobile life until the local Indian threat faded and the company moved on in 1882.

Decatur, TX

Born in Indiana and reared in Missouri, Ira Long was twice wounded in Confederate service before finding his calling on the Texas frontier. When the Texas Rangers were reorganized in 1874 he was commissioned a lieutenant, rising the next year to captain of Company A and serving as official escort to Ranger commander Major John B. Jones. Over six years he pursued outlaws and raiders and helped quell the violent Mason County War.

Comanche, TX

James Cunningham came from Alabama to settle Comanche County in 1855 and by 1858 commanded a Texas Ranger company charged with imposing order on a raw frontier. He led local men at the Battle of Dove Creek in January 1864, a bloody clash between Texas forces and Native fighters, and his sons went on to serve as sheriffs in three Texas counties. His career embodies the era's violent contest over the western edge of settlement.

Fredericksburg, TX

Edmund Kirby Smith, born in Florida in 1824, graduated from West Point, fought in the Mexican War, and commanded frontier camps in 1850s Texas. Resigning from the U.S. Army in 1861, he rose to lead the Confederacy's vast Trans-Mississippi Department, where Texas cotton financed his army and sheltered his family amid threats from Union forces and the French in Mexico. After the war he taught mathematics to young Texans at the University of the South until his death in 1893.

Galveston, TX

After the pirate Lafitte was driven from Galveston, West Indian settlers arrived and the island grew into the chief port of a rising Texas, declared a port of entry by Mexico in 1825. It briefly served as capital of the Republic when President Burnet's cabinet fled the interior during the 1836 San Jacinto campaign, and Michel B. Menard soon bought the townsite for $50,000. During the Civil War, Confederate forces evacuated the city in 1862 but retook it in 1863 under General John Bankhead Magruder, capturing Union ships and troops and holding it to the war's end.

Dallas, TX

Standing on land first owned by Dallas founder John Neely Bryan, this five-story Romanesque Revival building was completed in 1901 for the Southern Rock Island Plow Company after fire destroyed its predecessor. Decades of ordinary commercial tenancy followed — until November 22, 1963, when Lee Harvey Oswald allegedly fired from a sixth-floor window as President John F. Kennedy's motorcade passed below, and the building entered history forever.

Austin, TX

The Texas Legislature founded the Texas Deaf and Dumb Asylum in 1856, and the school opened in 1857 — with no students on the first day, but eleven by summer, taught under a demanding regime of work and self-sufficiency. Emily Lewis, whose memoir records those early years, served the school across four decades until her 1914 retirement, through a turbulent succession of superintendents including the frontier figure John Salmon 'Rip' Ford. A separate school for non-white deaf students was created in 1887 and remained segregated until integration in 1965.

Del Rio, TX

The Edwards Plateau of southwest Texas became sheep-and-goat country in the decades after ranchers like Phillip Palmer and Charles Dissler introduced flocks and herds in the late 1800s. In 1915, alarmed by a wave of livestock thefts, sixty stockmen gathered at Del Rio's Princess Theater to found what became the Texas Sheep and Goat Raisers' Association. Thirty signed the charter and chose local rancher J. B. Murrah as first president; the group later moved its headquarters to San Angelo and grew into a major trade and political force.

Galveston, TX

During the 1889 centennial of George Washington's inauguration, descendants of Revolutionary War soldiers formed the national Sons of the American Revolution to keep the founding era's memory alive. Inspired by that movement, a group of Texans met at Galveston's Tremont Hotel on December 8, 1896, to organize the Texas Society, electing former Texas House speaker Ira Hobart Evans as president. Admitted to the national body in 1897 as Galveston No. 1, it seeded more than thirty chapters across the state.

Fort Worth, TX

Riding the boosterism of the railroad age, Fort Worth promoters built the Texas Spring Palace in 1889—a fanciful two-story hall in Moorish and Oriental styles, its surfaces decorated by women's groups with flowers, seeds, and grasses to showcase the state's agricultural bounty. During its second season, on the night of May 30, 1890, fire tore through the crowded building; the sole death was Alfred Hayne, an English-born man who rushed back inside to save others and died of his burns. Plans to rebuild collapsed in the Panic of 1893.

Nacogdoches, TX

Along the historic King's Highway, in use since 1691, passengers boarded stagecoaches at Nacogdoches throughout the Civil War, one of the best-served stage towns in Confederate Texas with three stands and three lines. A Waco-bound traveler left at 6 a.m. and rode nearly five days to arrive, connecting onward to San Antonio, Austin, and beyond. In all, thirty-one stage lines carried mail, soldiers, and civilians across wartime Texas, most linking to railroads or steamers for far-reaching travel.

Austin, TX

After an earlier 1850s limestone statehouse proved structurally unsound and then burned in 1881, Texas financed a grand replacement by setting aside three million acres of public land. Detroit architect E. E. Myers won a national competition, and from 1882 crews raised a Renaissance Revival capitol of Texas Sunset Red granite hauled in on rail lines built for the job. When the Goddess of Liberty was hoisted atop the dome in 1888, the building stood more than fourteen feet taller than the U.S. Capitol.

Rusk, TX

In the late 1880s the Texas prison system laid a short rail line from the Rusk penitentiary to timber stands, where charcoal was burned to fire the prison's iron-ore smelters. Organized in 1894 and built by convict labor, the Texas State Railroad grew to reach Palestine by 1909, championed by two Cherokee County–born governors, James Stephen Hogg and Thomas M. Campbell. After the smelters and prison unit closed, the line passed in 1972 to the state parks system.

Palestine, TX

The Texas prison system first laid a short rail line from the Rusk penitentiary to timber stands where charcoal was burned to fire its iron-ore furnaces. Organized in 1896 and completed to Palestine in 1909, the convict-built railroad was meant to make the prison self-supporting and develop East Texas. After the furnaces closed and financial troubles mounted, the line was leased to commercial railroads until 1969, then handed to Texas Parks & Wildlife, whose inmate-restored tracks and vintage steam trains now draw tourists.

Temple, TX

In the 1930s, drought and wind stripped the southern plains of topsoil in one of the nation's worst ecological disasters, the Dust Bowl. As conservationists like Hugh Hammond Bennett pressed for solutions, Texas responded: after years of failed bills, Gov. W. Lee 'Pappy' O'Daniel signed the state's Soil Conservation Law in 1939, creating locally controlled districts and a state board — headquartered in Temple under first chairman V.C. Marshall of Bell County.

Woodville, TX

Allan Shivers grew up in East Texas and entered the state Senate in 1935 as the youngest man ever seated to that point, authoring Texas's old-age pension and unemployment compensation laws. After serving as lieutenant governor, he became one of the state's most powerful governors from 1949 to 1957—then its longest administration—winning the fight to restore the tidelands to Texas and reforming hospitals, prisons, and schools. He also chaired national governors' conferences and led the Council of State Governments.

Jefferson, TX

Charles Allen Culberson practiced law in Jefferson before rising through thirty-two years of Texas public office as attorney general, governor, and U.S. senator. As attorney general he recovered more than two million acres of public land claimed by railroads and backed Governor Hogg's antitrust reforms and the Railroad Commission, later leading the Senate minority and its Judiciary Committee.

Moscow, TX

Born near Moscow, Texas, in 1878, William Pettus Hobby rose from newspaperman to publisher to Lieutenant Governor, and became Governor in 1917 upon the impeachment of James Ferguson. His tenure brought free schoolbooks, compulsory attendance, a state budget system, and crucial leadership on Texas's World War I effort and the cause of woman suffrage. In 1931 he married Oveta Culp, herself a formidable public figure who would command the Women's Army Corps in World War II and later serve in President Eisenhower's cabinet.

Texas City, TX

Founded in 1910 to boost profits at the young port of Texas City, the Texas Sugar Refining Company grew into a nine-building, five-million-dollar complex employing hundreds and turning out a million pounds of "Diamond Star" sugar a day. It rode boom and bust — contracting to package sugar under the American Sugar label, sliding into bankruptcy over a mortgage default, reorganizing, and finally closing in 1932. Its buildings, later held by Monsanto, were among those destroyed in the catastrophic 1947 Texas City disaster.

Lubbock, TX

When Texas Technological College handed out its first diplomas on May 30, 1927, the graduates immediately organized an alumni association to stay tied to their new school. From offices in the Administration Building it launched a magazine in 1937, weathered lean postwar years thanks to a "100 Club" of donors, and grew alongside the booming college of the 1950s and 1960s. Renamed several times, it became the Texas Tech Alumni Association at its 75th anniversary in 2002 and today anchors the campus through the McKenzie-Merket Alumni Center.

Lubbock, TX

The Livestock Judging Pavilion was among the first four buildings on the new Texas Tech campus and the very first raised specifically for agricultural education, reflecting the school's founding emphasis on farming and ranching in the 1920s. Designed by noted Fort Worth architect Wyatt C. Hedrick, the versatile hall even hosted early basketball games before settling into its role as a monument to agriculture's place in the university's origins.

Lubbock, TX

Completed in 1927 to house the cows of Texas Tech's Animal Husbandry Department, this dairy barn was deliberately designed as an Arts and Crafts bungalow to appeal to the farmers the young college served, setting it apart from the campus's Spanish Renaissance Revival architecture. Architect Wyatt Hedrick laid out a working dairy complete with milk house, milking rooms, calf stalls, and a cast-concrete silo. By 1930 the operation supplied milk, butter, and ice cream to the cafeteria, and students could offset their tuition by selling the products of cows they kept there.

Kermit, TX

When Texas joined the United States in 1846 it claimed some 98,300 square miles reaching into five future states. After the Mexican War, anti-slavery forces sought to shrink the slave state of Texas, and in the Compromise of 1850 Texas gave up a third of its area for $10 million, using the money to pay Republic debts and seed a public school fund. A corner post four miles east marks the resulting boundary at the 103rd meridian and 32nd parallel, where Texas meets New Mexico's southeast corner.

Dallas, TX

Opened in 1931 as the largest suburban theater in Texas, the Texas Theatre was an "atmospheric" movie palace designed to transport audiences, its Venetian-court auditorium glittering with 118 twinkling stars beneath a painted night sky. Built at the commercial heart of Oak Cliff with rare Motiograph sound equipment, it drew crowds for decades. On November 22, 1963, it earned lasting fame when Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested in its auditorium after the Kennedy assassination, and later renovations, a role in the film "JFK," and a foundation's rescue kept this landmark alive into the twenty-first century.

Decatur, TX

In 1927 local businessman E. F. Boydston bought a former feed lot for $400 and sensed opportunity in the growing tide of automobile travelers. He built a gas station and let motorists camp overnight, then added cabins, garages, and the Texas Lunchroom, later the Texas Cafe — facing the buildings in stone and even petrified wood. Popular with students, families, and travelers for decades, the complex faded after a highway bypass diverted traffic in the 1960s.

Dallas, TX

With some 90,000 Texas men away fighting for the Confederacy, the civilian labor of a whole society fell to the women left behind in a land of few factories and a tightening naval blockade. They ran farms, businesses, and newspapers; loaded shells and made gun caps; spun, wove, and dyed homemade cloth; brewed coffee from acorns and medicine from herbs; and faced raids and marauders along thousands of miles of coast and frontier.

Dallas, TX

Dallas's Love Field made Texas aviation history twice in the mid-1920s. On May 12, 1926, National Air Transport — a forerunner of United Air Lines — launched the state's first airmail service, sending single-engine monoplanes named "Miss Dallas" and "Miss Fort Worth" on a twelve-hour hop toward Chicago. The following year the same route carried Texas's first air passengers and express, at a dime a mile, cutting fifteen hours off the train.

San Antonio, TX

On October 28, 1928, a San Antonio station billed as "Radio Sam" launched a two-hour nightly broadcast entirely in Spanish — the first program of its kind in Texas. Owner Sam Liberto and businessman Edward Buckley recruited Julián F. Lozano to produce and announce "The International Goodwill Program," which he hosted in a spirit of cross-cultural understanding until his death in 1951. The tradition he began seeded the many hours of Spanish-language radio that San Antonio stations still air today.