Women's History

Plano, TX

Among the earliest graveyards in Collin County, this cemetery began in 1852 when Dr. Lillie was buried on land owned by his uncle William Forman, a Kentuckian who had bought 640 acres the year before. His death prompted settlers to organize a burial ground, and by the 1870s the Forman family plot merged with tracts owned by the Masonic and Odd Fellows lodges. A Ladies Mutual Cemetery Association formed in the 1890s beautified and doubled the grounds before today's association took over in 1928.

Dallas, TX

This congregation grew from a rural union church meeting in a cabin as early as 1875. In 1906 its Ladies Aid Society began raising money for a dedicated building, completed in 1908 — the first of several sanctuaries repeatedly struck by fire and rebuilt across the decades. Through it all the church continued to serve descendants of the area's pioneer families.

Pleasanton, TX

A Church of Christ presence in Atascosa County reaches back to at least 1858, but the Pleasanton congregation grew from home services begun around 1910 by a group of women led by Texana Brite. Women bought the land in 1914 and drove the church's early life, though custom barred them from preaching, so men came out from San Antonio on Sundays to lead worship. A frame building went up in 1924, and later decades brought a radio ministry, foreign missions, and the church's first full-time preacher.

Marin County, CA

Point Reyes National Seashore was set aside in the 1960s to protect a dramatic stretch of the Northern California coast from development, and this plaque marks its dedication by First Lady Lady Bird Johnson 'to the service of the people of the United States.' Her presence tied the seashore to the era's broad push for conservation and natural beauty, a cause she made her own during her husband's presidency. The dedication placed one of America's most rugged coastlines permanently in public hands.

Port Lavaca, TX

The Eastern Star came to Port Lavaca first in 1894, and after that chapter lapsed a second was chartered as No. 373 in 1907, drawing in veterans of the earlier group. Bertie Best led as its first worthy matron, and a later member, Annie Leggett, rose to Deputy Grand Matron of the Texas Grand Chapter. For more than a century the chapter has anchored local charity and benevolence.

Brownsville, TX

This one-story brick veneer cottage went up in 1928 for John and Mary Helen Harris and soon passed to Dean and Gladys Porter, who engaged in ranching and real estate around Olmito. Gladys Porter, active in the American Red Cross Nurses Aid Program and the Brownsville Junior Service League, later lent her name to the Gladys Porter Zoo. Humorist and writer Sam Huddleston and his wife Dorothy lived in the house from 1969 to 1997.

San Antonio, TX

In 1880, as the Gilded Age industrialized the American economy, San Antonio investors incorporated the Alamo Roman and Portland Cement Company on this site — the first Portland cement plant west of the Mississippi and only the second in the nation. Cement mixed here helped raise the Texas State Capitol in Austin, until the local raw material ran out and the works closed in 1907. Notably, Mrs. Charles Baumberger, Sr. ran the business from 1880 until it shut down, a rare directing role for a woman in heavy industry of that era.

Amarillo, TX

The Potter County free library began in 1902 through the efforts of twelve local women, who gathered donated books and raised money with bazaars and candy sales. After moving through a series of borrowed quarters, the library won county support in 1921, and this building rose in 1922 for $25,000 in the prairie-school style. Its basement offered a lounge for women shoppers, children, and tourists, staffed by a matron.

Lansing, MI

In 1913, James W. and Sarah J. Potter gave the growing capital city of Lansing a parcel of land along the Red Cedar River that became Potter Park. The gift came during the Progressive Era, when civic-minded donors and reformers championed public green space as an antidote to crowded, industrializing cities. The park would grow into one of Michigan's beloved municipal spaces, eventually home to a well-known zoo.

Huntsville, TX

Powell Sanctuary grew from grief: after Benjamin and Marian Powell lost their five-year-old son in 1923, the couple set out to make a place of comfort for others who mourned. Benjamin was a lawyer and district judge; Marian was a teacher, school board member, and Walker County's women's suffrage chair. Beginning in 1934 they placed within Oakwood Cemetery one of the few full-size American copies of Thorvaldsen's "Christus," with granite benches for meditation — a quiet gift to the town that endures still.

Victoria, TX

Built in 1894 for Edward Power, this Victoria residence is distinguished by its columns, wide wrapping porches, and fine wood trim in the comfortable style of a prosperous Gilded Age Texas town. In 1960 Mrs. James Power gave the house jointly to three lineage-and-heritage societies — the Daughters of the American Revolution, the Daughters of the Republic of Texas, and the United Daughters of the Confederacy. It was recognized as a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1966.

Prairieville, TX

Prairieville was founded within the Mercer Colony land grant by Norwegian colonizer Johan Reinert Reiersen, who had already established an earlier settlement before putting down roots here in 1847. Elise Tvede Waerenskjold, Reiersen's collaborator on the promotional magazine 'Norway and Texas,' kept writing for Norwegian journals and helped spur a steady stream of immigrants across the ocean. By 1857 some eighty Norwegians lived here alongside Anglo-Americans, Danes, Germans, Swedes, and French—a genuinely polyglot prairie community complete with a church, hotel, post office, and stage stops.

Denison, TX

Ten social leaders founded Denison's XXI Club in 1890, and by 1896 they had built a two-story brick hall said to be the first woman's clubhouse in Texas, with rooms for music, drama, and art. A charter member of the Texas Federation of Women's Clubs, the group used its hall to give Denison its first free public library, which it ran from 1896 to 1935.

Waco, TX

After finding Waco's medical care lacking in 1901, Dr. James W. Hale rallied local business leaders to build a proper hospital, and they turned to the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul — an order founded in France in 1633 and brought to America by St. Elizabeth Ann Seton. The sisters opened Providence Sanitarium in 1905, caring for indigent patients under a city contract and training hundreds of nurses over the following decades. The institution grew with the city, adding mental health services and eventually relocating and becoming Providence Health Center.

Bethlehem, PA · est. 1974

While the Polish cavalry officer Casimir Pulaski guarded this area in 1778, the Moravian women of Bethlehem stitched a crimson banner for his legion, which his horsemen carried until he fell at the Siege of Savannah in 1779. The gift became one of the Revolution's cherished legends, later immortalized in Longfellow's verse "Hymn of the Moravian Nuns." The story bound a foreign volunteer's sacrifice to the quiet devotion of a Pennsylvania religious community.

Bowie, TX

Rising above land first reached by settlers in the late 1840s and permanently settled from 1858, Queen's Peak served as a lookout in a region whose early history was, in the marker's own words, a long story of Indian raids. The monument here was raised to honor the pioneer women who lived amid that danger and daily risked their lives for others. It memorializes courage on a hard and exposed North Texas frontier.

Charlotte, NC

Founded in 1857 as the Charlotte Female Institute, this Presbyterian school was one of many Southern academies established to educate young women in an era when higher learning was largely closed to them. It relocated to this Myers Park campus in 1915 as Charlotte grew into a regional hub, and opened its doors to men in 1987. The institution's long arc traces the changing place of women and church-founded colleges in American education.

Quinlan, TX

Quinlan grew up around 1892 as a stop on the Texas Midland Railroad, owned by the famed Wall Street bond investor Hettie Green and run by her son Edward. Named for a railroad general manager, the town incorporated by 1896 and became a shipping point for cotton growers, boasting gins, banks, and churches before oil and the building of Lake Tawakoni reshaped its economy in the twentieth century.

Wells, ME

This memorial on the Maine coast honors Rachel Carson, the marine biologist and writer whose books — from "The Sea Around Us" to "Silent Spring" — reshaped how Americans understood the natural world. The quoted lines capture her central insight: that all life on Earth is bound together, an idea that helped launch the modern environmental movement. The national wildlife refuge that bears her name protects the salt marshes and estuaries she loved.

Springdale, PA · est. 1988

In a modest house on Marion Avenue in 1907, a future scientist and writer was born who would change how Americans see the natural world. Rachel Carson trained as a marine biologist and won a wide readership with lyrical books about the ocean, including 1951's 'The Sea Around Us.' Her 1962 landmark 'Silent Spring' exposed the hidden costs of chemical pesticides and helped ignite the modern environmental movement.

Wells, ME · est. 1970

Dedicated in 1970 within the coastal salt marshes of southern Maine, this plaque honors Rachel Carson (1907–1964), the marine biologist and writer whose books reshaped how Americans understood the natural world. Its quotation, drawn from her thinking behind The Sea Around Us and Silent Spring, distills her central idea: that every living thing is bound to every other and to the Earth itself. The refuge that bears her name protects the estuaries and tidal wetlands she spent her life studying and defending.

Boston, MA

In the crowded North Square of Boston's North End, silversmith and patriot Paul Revere kept his home in the years surrounding the American Revolution. It was from this dense colonial neighborhood that Revere set out on his famous night ride in April 1775 to warn that British regulars were on the march. His wife, Rachel Walker Revere, held the household together through the upheaval of war and occupation, and it is for her that this overlook is named.

Albany, NH

This rustic cabin in the woods of Albany, New Hampshire, was built by Eliza Greene Radeke, a Rhode Island arts patron who served as president of the Rhode Island School of Design in the early twentieth century. RISD, founded in 1877 in Providence, grew into one of America's most influential art and design schools, and Radeke was among the women whose leadership and philanthropy shaped its early growth. A cabin like this one, in the White Mountains region, reflects the era's fashion among cultured New Englanders for simple retreats amid nature.

El Paso, TX

What began in 1910 as the El Paso School for Girls — 18 students in leased houses on Terrace Street — grew into one of the region's leading college-preparatory schools. When crushing debt threatened it in 1927, principal Lucinda de Leftwich Templin persuaded her friends George and Julia Radford of Missouri to pay off the mortgage, and the grateful institution took their name. Among its many graduates was Sandra Day O'Connor, the first woman to sit on the United States Supreme Court.

Washington, PA · est. 2013

Born in 1831 in the Bradford House and schooled at the Washington Female Seminary that once stood here, Rebecca Harding Davis became one of America's earliest literary realists. Her 1861 story Life in the Iron Mills exposed the grinding lives of industrial laborers at a time when most fiction looked away from them. Over a long career she wrote hundreds of works pressing on the social wounds of her era.

Austin, TX

Rebecca Jane Kilgore Stuart Red became principal of the Live Oak Female Seminary in Washington County in 1853 and kept teaching after her 1854 marriage to Dr. George Clark Red. Moving to Austin in 1876, the couple opened the Stuart Female Seminary, and she taught until nine days before her death in 1886. Her heirs later gave the property to the Presbyterian Synod, and the Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary operated on the site in the early 1900s.

Corpus Christi, TX

Built in 1928 on a bluff above Corpus Christi Bay, this brick Italian Renaissance home was raised by Richard King, grandson of the King Ranch's founder, after a 1919 hurricane destroyed his earlier house. A banker, King helped finance the city's new deep-water port and bring the naval air station to town, while Minerva King made the home a hub of civic and musical organizations. Designed to withstand hurricanes, it was recorded as a Texas Historic Landmark in 2016.

Bastrop, TX

Around 1910, Bastrop merchants Theodore and Mary Hasler hired architect Gus Brieger to build a home for their daughter Annie and her husband — Gus's own brother, Richard. The late Victorian Queen Anne house, home to the Briegers and their five children, became a favorite setting for social gatherings. During World War II it took on a new role, sheltering wives of soldiers stationed at nearby Camp Swift.

New York, NY

In 1899, as the free public library movement swept American cities, Queens resident Ella Flanders — a member of the civic-minded 20th Century Club — launched a free circulating library out of Arcanum Hall on Jamaica Avenue, planting the seed of what became the Richmond Hill Branch of the Queens Borough Public Library. Women's clubs like hers were the quiet engines behind countless early American libraries, raising funds and stocking shelves at a time when tax-supported reading rooms were still a novelty. Among its first trustees was Jacob Riis, the reformer and photojournalist whose exposés of tenement life had made the case that knowledge and opportunity should reach every neighborhood.

Weymouth, MA

In 1920, Irene Loud Walker placed this memorial to Robert E. Loud in Weymouth, one of the oldest towns in Massachusetts. It belongs to a long New England tradition of privately raised monuments — a family member or admirer commissioning a lasting tribute to honor a local figure's memory. The marker itself records the dedication rather than the details of his life.

El Paso, TX

Robert Ewing Thomason gave more than fifty years to public life, serving as an El Paso attorney, state legislator, mayor, U.S. congressman, and federal judge. As Speaker of the Texas House he helped win the state's ratification of the 19th Amendment, urging colleagues to let "the American woman walk by the side of the American man to the ballot box." In Congress he helped establish Big Bend National Park and expand Fort Bliss, and as a federal judge appointed by President Truman he presided in this courthouse over landmark cases, including the 1955 Thelma White desegregation case.

Kingsville, TX

Kingsville's public library began as a project of the Woman's Club in 1909 and moved in 1927 into this Spanish colonial revival building, erected under the leadership of club president Mrs. John D. Finnegan. The land was donated from the Henrietta M. King Estate by cattleman Robert J. Kleberg, for whom the library was named. It served the community from this site for three decades.

Amarillo, TX

Designed by architect Harold Walsh in 1949 with close input from its owners, this Amarillo home is tied to Margaret Roberts, who studied under the celebrated painter Georgia O'Keeffe during O'Keeffe's years teaching in the Texas Panhandle and went on to earn national recognition. The house reflects the postwar confidence of a mid-century American city and the creative life that flourished within it. It was named a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 2016.

Newark, NJ

This monument honors Rosa Parks, whose refusal to give up her bus seat in Montgomery, Alabama, in 1955 helped ignite the modern civil rights movement. The quotation carved here distills the quiet conviction that made her act of defiance so powerful — a stand rooted not in anger but in a steady sense of what was right. Newark, a city with its own deep African American history and civil rights struggles, claims her legacy as part of the national story it shares.

Boston, MA

This rose garden on Boston's waterfront honors Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy (1890–1995), the daughter of colorful Boston mayor John F. "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald and matriarch of one of America's most storied political families. Born in the North End to Irish-American parents at the height of Boston's immigrant era, she raised nine children—among them a president, an attorney general, and a long-serving U.S. senator—and became a public symbol of faith and perseverance through decades of family triumph and tragedy. The garden's setting near the harbor ties her memory to the Boston neighborhoods where the Fitzgerald and Kennedy families rose from immigrant roots to national prominence.

Maysville, KY

Born in the Ohio River town of Maysville, Rosemary Clooney rose from a small-city childhood to national stardom, topping the charts in 1951 with the novelty hit "Come On-A My House" and following it with standards like "Hey There" and "This Ole House." Hollywood soon called, and she co-starred with Bing Crosby in the beloved 1954 film White Christmas. Across a six-decade career the acclaimed "girl singer" stayed tied to her hometown, launching a music festival there in 1999.

Brenham, TX

Around 1899, Mary Dwyer Ross built this exuberant Queen Anne house of cypress on land inherited from her father, its open tower, horseshoe-arched porch, and jigsawn friezes typical of Victorian ornamentation. The home passed to her daughter Matilda and stayed in the family into the 1970s. It stands as a fine example of the decorative domestic architecture that flourished in prosperous Gilded Age Texas towns.

Waco, TX

Laid out along the west bank of the Brazos in 1914, Rotan Drive was conceived as a grand scenic boulevard linking downtown Waco to the new William Cameron Park, an expression of the era's City Beautiful movement. Kate S. M. Rotan spent a year acquiring land and donating it to the city, inspiring other prominent women to raise money and lobby for the cause. Widely praised in travel guides, the roadway still serves as a main gateway to the park.

Port Arthur, TX

Built in 1915 for Port Arthur's First United Methodist Church, this Gothic-and-Tudor landmark rose on Port Arthur College land under an unusual pact that let the school use the building whenever worship did not. When the congregation merged and moved in 1976, the building passed to the college and was dedicated in 1978 to Ruby Ruth Fuller, who taught Sunday school for 42 years and was the church's only teacher emeritus. Its towered brick facade and opalescent glass still frame classrooms today.

Amarillo, TX

Russell Hall was one of the first two permanent buildings at Amarillo College, raised in 1937-39 with Public Works Administration funding during the Depression. Architect Guy Carlander designed it in a geometric Art Deco style—chevrons, flutes, and the words "honor" and "valor" carved above its doors—and the gymnasium was later renamed for Dr. Natalie Russell, a champion of women's physical education at the college.

Frankfort, KY

In 1919, schoolteachers Ruth Hanly and Rebecca Gooch left the classroom to found Rebecca-Ruth Candy, working out of the shuttered barroom of the Frankfort Hotel, which Prohibition had emptied. The two built a thriving business before women could even vote. After buying out her partner in 1929, Ruth Hanly Booe is credited with inventing the world-famous "Bourbon Ball" and the "Mint Kentucky Colonel," steering the company through a factory fire, the Great Depression, and wartime sugar rationing.

Honesdale, PA · est. 2016

Ruth McGinnis learned the game at her father's pool hall in the Honesdale area and rose to become Women's Pocket Billiard Champion of the World from 1932 to 1940, widely regarded as the finest American woman player for more than three decades. She defeated the celebrated athlete Babe Didrikson Zaharias and toured alongside legend Willie Mosconi, and she was later enshrined in the Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame.

Philadelphia, PA · est. 2018

When L. Frank Baum died in 1919, the beloved land of Oz might have faded away—except that Ruth Plumly Thompson took up his pen. From her Philadelphia home she wrote nineteen Oz books between 1921 and 1939, more than Baum himself, beginning with The Royal Book of Oz. Her steady output kept Dorothy, the Scarecrow, and their friends alive in children's imaginations right up to the 1939 MGM film that made them immortal.

Brownsville, TX

This small cemetery began in 1878 with the burial of rancher and businessman Sabas Cavazos, and it lies within a portion of the vast Espiritu Santo grant that the King of Spain conveyed to José Salvador de la Garza in 1781. Cavazos, born in 1809 in Camargo, was a great-grandson of the original grantee, and the grant itself encompassed a quarter-million acres including the future sites of Fort Brown and Brownsville. The de la Garza family founded the region's first settlements, several established by the matriarch Doña Estefana.

Portland, OR

Erected by the women of the United States, this statue honors Sacagawea, the young Lemhi Shoshone woman who traveled with the Lewis and Clark expedition from 1804 to 1806, her infant son Jean-Baptiste on her back. Her presence and knowledge helped guide the Corps of Discovery across the continent to the Pacific. Generations later, suffrage-era women claimed her as a symbol and the 'pioneer mother of Oregon.'

Philadelphia, PA · est. 1993

Sadie Tanner Mossell Alexander broke barrier after barrier in early-to-mid-20th-century America, becoming the first Black woman admitted to the Pennsylvania bar. A tireless force in the Urban League and other civil rights causes, she was appointed in 1946 to President Truman's Committee on Civil Rights, whose landmark report helped set the stage for later desegregation. She spent her later years in this Philadelphia home.

Fort Worth, TX

In booming 1880s railroad-town Fort Worth, the Missouri Pacific opened an infirmary for its workers, and in 1885 handed it over to the Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word—ten nuns who came up from San Antonio to run it. When the railroad's work wound down in 1889, the sisters bought the facility outright and made it St. Joseph's, the city's first general hospital, caring for charity patients from the start. A three-story brick building followed in 1898, and over the next century the institution grew to add professional training, counseling, and the county's first hospice.

Raleigh, NC

Established in 1842 by the Reverend Aldert Smedes, Saint Mary's was an Episcopal school for girls built on the site of an earlier Episcopal school for boys. In an age when few institutions offered serious education to young women, Smedes built a rigorous academy that drew students from across the South. It became one of the region's most enduring girls' schools.

Salado, TX

The roots of Salado United Methodist Church reach back to an 1854 revival led by circuit rider the Rev. Thomas Gilmore on Salado Creek, where he organized a Methodist congregation and a Union Sunday school. Worshiping first in a brush arbor and at Salado College, members built a Carpenter Gothic sanctuary in 1890 and, over the following century, absorbed neighboring rural congregations at Bell Plains and Prairie Dell. The church sent one of its own, Emma Stone Pilley, as a missionary to Japan and China, and preserved its 1890 sanctuary within new facilities when it moved in 2005.

Inez, TX

In 1910 the Higginson Colonization Company platted farms, orchards, and a townsite in northeast Victoria County, marketing tracts to settlers who came from Ohio, Kansas, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. Named Salem — Hebrew for "peace" — and also called the "Colony of Brotherly Love," the community soon had a post office, a two-room school, and a Brethren in Christ church. Civic life centered on figures like Rose Lambert Musselman, a former Mennonite missionary who ran the post office and a general store. Inconsistent harvests sapped the small tracts' appeal, and the colony faded in the late 1930s.

Danvers, MA

In 1692 the farming community then known as Salem Village—today's Danvers, Massachusetts—became the epicenter of colonial America's most infamous witch panic. Accusations that began with afflicted girls spread through the Puritan community, and special courts sent twenty people to their deaths and left others to die in jail before the hysteria collapsed under its own excess. This memorial gathers the community's remorse into a single quiet promise: to remember the innocent men and women destroyed by fear, rumor, and a justice system that abandoned its own safeguards.

Huntsville, TX

Raised on a North Carolina plantation and educated at the Greensboro College for Young Ladies, Sallie E. Gibbs came to Texas after the Civil War and married Huntsville merchant Sandford Gibbs in 1866. When he died in 1886, she took the reins of the family firm, spending three decades transforming it into one of East Texas's leading land, timber, and financial enterprises and co-founding Gibbs National Bank in 1890. Her success was mirrored in the grand Queen Anne home she built on this site in 1895.

Pitt County, NC

Sallie Southall Cotten (1846–1929) was a writer and a leading advocate for women's rights in North Carolina. In 1902 she helped organize the North Carolina Federation of Women's Clubs, which became a powerful vehicle for reform and civic activism. She lived about a mile south of this Pitt County marker.

Refugio, TX

In Civil War Texas, the Confederacy was cut off from Northern goods and blockaded at sea, making the overland "Cotton Road" to Mexico a lifeline. Sally Scull ran freight wagons down that dangerous route, trading baled cotton for guns, ammunition, medicine, and everyday supplies. A crack shot who dressed in trousers, carried a rifle and two pistols, and bossed her own armed crews, she did wartime work few men would risk.

Weatherford, TX

This memorial gathers a family whose lives spanned continents and the violent frontier. Mary Yergins, born in Germany, was captured by Indians in 1836; shortly afterward she gave birth to a daughter, Jane, and mother and child were later ransomed. Mary went on to marry Samuel Joseph Redgate, an England-born settler who served in the Texas Legislature from 1858 to 1861. The State of Texas erected the marker in 1936 to preserve their intertwined story.

Corsicana, TX

Georgia native Dr. Samuel Wistar Johnson began his medical career in Atlanta before settling in Corsicana, where he became a respected physician and was elected mayor in 1900. During his term the city gained a public library, spurred by its women's clubs, and Johnson also had a hand in Corsicana's pioneering oil industry. He later moved to Dallas, died there in 1922, and is buried in Corsicana.

San Antonio, TX

On May 13, 1907, fifteen charter members organized the San Antonio Section of the National Council of Jewish Women in the Menger Hotel, electing Anna Hertzberg president. The council quickly launched social services—a night school teaching English to adult immigrants, literacy and public-health projects, a well-baby clinic in the 1930s, wartime day care, and the Lighthouse for the Blind. It continued adapting its programs to the city's needs for generations.

Houston, TX

In November 1891, just days after the statewide Daughters of the Republic of Texas was founded in a Houston parlor, eight local women organized its San Jacinto Chapter — among them the widow of Anson Jones, the Republic's last president. The chapter made preserving the San Jacinto Battlefield its great cause, helping veterans mark key sites, pushing the state to acquire hundreds of acres, and placing granite markers across the grounds. Their log headquarters was built with federal labor in 1936, the same era that finally saw the towering San Jacinto Monument rise.

Boca Raton, FL · est. 2020

In the early 1950s the lot across from Boca Raton's Old Town Hall — once a bus station — sat empty until Eleanor Sanborn lent it for the town's holiday celebrations, then in 1955 donated it to the city in memory of her late husband, Dr. William E. Sanborn. The gift became the community's town square. Voters expanded it in 1983, removing the road that once bisected the park, and it was rededicated in 1985 as the green heart of a growing downtown.

Waco, TX

Sarah Ann Vouchere Walker was the widow of Jacob Walker, remembered as among the last defenders to fall at the Alamo. Louisiana-born, she came to Texas in 1829 and eventually received the earliest land grant recorded in Sabine County, a substantial tract east of the Brazos. Frontier legend credits her with a 300-mile horseback ride to warn Sam Houston of a coming Indian attack, and her descendants set aside her burial ground in perpetuity, marking it in 1965.